[19], Tensions between as-Salih Ayyub and his mamluks came to a head later in 1249 when Louis IX of France's forces captured Damietta in their bid to conquer Egypt during the Seventh Crusade. [128] The manifestations of anti-Christian hostility were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than under the direction of Mamluk sultans. . These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver ducats and bullion, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey and cheeses. With the Ottoman victories over the Mamluks in 1516-17, Egypt and Syria reverted to the status of provinces within an empire. What better characterizes Mamluk-era urban architecture? [126] Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulty under Mamluk rule than under previous Muslim powers. For example, enameled glassware was a prominent industry during the first half of the Mamluk period but declined significantly in the 15th century. [39] Qutuz then prepared Cairo's defenses to ward off the Mongols' threatened invasion of Egypt, but after hearing news that Hulagu withdrew from Syria to claim the Mongol throne, Qutuz began preparations for the conquest of Syria. [90] Nonetheless, in the following year, Barquq toppled as-Salih Hajji with the backing of Yalbugha's mamluks and assumed the sultanate, adopting the title of Baybars, "al-Malik az-Zahir". [74], The third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad also saw a departure from the traditions of succession and administrative elevation of his predecessors since he observed in his first two reigns that such traditions had been ignored anyway, while sultans were being assassinated and mamluks were abusing other mamluks in bids for power. Then in the summer of 1260, the . Later, when the Mamluks replaced the Ayyubid Sultanate, they controlled Egypt, the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levant. [145] The Bedouin were ultimately purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Emir Shaykhu in 1353. True or False: The Mamluks were massacred by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, effectively ending their existence. Drought's effects on the population slowed the Ottoman Empire's expansion in the 16th century. . [182], Over time, the iqta system was expanded, and increasingly larger areas of kharaj (taxable lands) were appropriated as iqta lands in order to meet the fiscal needs of the Mamluk military institution, namely payment of Mamluk officers and their subordinates. [114] As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population. Most of the Mamluks, especially in the early years of its class, were ethnic Turks. Having defeated the Hashashin assassins of Persia and successfully besieged the illustrious city of Baghdad in 1258, the Mongols seemed unstoppable. [35] The Bahriyyah and al-Mughith launched a second expedition in 1258, but were again defeated. [202], Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, particularly those commissioned for mosques. After so many other cities were destroyed by the Mongols, Cairo became possibly the greatest city in Afro-Eurasia by the end of the 13th century. Winter, ed. [126] The authority of the former extended to many of the everyday aspects of Christian and Jewish life and was not restricted to the religious practices of the two respective communities. metal-faced doors, doorknockers, window grilles, and window shutters, and aims to . [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. [83] Coinciding with Hasan's first term,[84] in 13471348, the Bubonic Plague arrived in Egypt and other plagues followed, causing mass death in the country, which in turn led to major social and economic changes in the region. The rumor, accentuated by the execution of civilian notables who evacuated Damietta, provoked a mutiny by the garrison of his camp in al-Mansurah, which included numerous Salihi mamluks. [72] He then assigned emirates to over thirty of his own mamluks. [169] Mamluk emirs also had their own ustadars. In 1260, after a period of confusion following the death of the last Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became Sultan. [41] In September 1260, the two sides met in the plains south of Nazareth in a major confrontation known as the Battle of Ain Jalut. [177] The Mamluk state resolved to increase allotments by dispersing an individual emir's iqtaat over several provinces and for brief terms. Free and expert-verified textbook solutions. Influences from the Syrian region, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. [101] The second expedition was against the Aq Qoyonlu capital of Amid, which ended with the Aq Qoyonlu recognizing Mamluk suzerainty. [185] The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other aspects of rural infrastructure. The Mamluks arrived in Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. [201], Metalware, whether in the form of ewers, basins, or candlesticks, was widely used in various contexts and many examples have survived today. Abstract: Agriculture has been the main source of the economy for all dynasties established in Egypt and the Mamluk kingdom was no exception. 1: Map of the Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Author: User "Ro4444" Source: Wikimedia Commons License: CC BY-SA 4.0. [152] Despite the electoral nature of accession, dynastic succession was nonetheless a reality at times,[74] particularly during the Bahri regime, where Baybars' sons Barakah and Solamish succeeded him, before Qalawun usurped the throne and was thereafter succeeded by four generations of direct descendants, with occasional interruptions. The Egyptians followed them into the Battle of Fariskur where the Egyptians utterly destroyed the Crusaders on 6 April. [169], The Mamluk economy essentially consisted of two spheres: the state economy, which was organized along the lines of an elite household and was controlled by a virtual caste government headed by the sultan, and the free market economy, which was the domain of society in general and which was associated with the native inhabitants in contrast to the ethnically foreign origins of the Mamluk ruling elite. Best study tips and tricks for your exams. [123] Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrines were regarded Who was the founder of the Mamluk Dynasty? Art depicting the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. The Mamluks came to Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. [38], By the time of Aybak's death, the Bahriyyah had entered the service of al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak, who agreed to invade Egypt and claim the Ayyubid sultanate, but al-Mughith's small Bahri-dominated invading force was routed at the frontier with Egypt in November. [182] A second and final rawk was completed in 1315 under Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad and influenced political and economic developments of the Mamluk Sultanate until its fall in the early 16th century. [130] There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Coptic Christians and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship in times of intercommunal tensions. The Mamluks were distinctly Islamic, but many Christians and Jews lived within their Sultanate. [45] The need for smooth delivery of correspondence also led to the large scale repair or construction of roads and bridges along the postal route. The muhtasib in Cairo was the most senior of the four and his position was akin to that of a finance minister. [90] Afterward, he managed to bring to Egypt his father Anas and many of his kinsmen,[90] possibly in an attempt to establish a power base outside of the Mamluk establishment. [89], Sha'ban was succeeded by his seven-year-old son al-Mansur Ali, although the oligarchy of the senior emirs held the reins of power. [74] The latter situation applied to the sultans Baybars, Qalawun, the latter's son, an-Nasir Muhammad and Barquq, who formally arranged for one or more of their sons to succeed them. [63] Its location facing as-Salih's tomb was meant demonstrate Qalawun's lasting connection to his master and to honor the Salihiyyah. Create and find flashcards in record time. [113] Ethnic origin was a key component of an individual mamluk's identity, and ethnic identity manifested itself through given names, dress, access to administrative positions and was indicated by a sultan's nisba. [163], The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars' early reforms was creating a military hierarchy. Keep reading to learn more about the Mamluk Sultanate environment, culture, and more. Many Bedouin women mourned his death. After Aybak learned that Aydughdi was plotting to topple him and recognize an-Nasir Yusuf as Ayyubid sultan, which would likely leave Aydughdi in virtual control of Egypt, Aybak had Aydughdi imprisoned in Alexandria in 1254 or 1255. In the 28 October battle of Homs, the Mamluks routed the Ilkhanids and confirmed Mamluk dominance in Syria. [123] The Shadhiliyyah lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. [102], Barsbay launched military expeditions against the Aq Qoyonlu in 1429 and 1433. [80] This unorthodox move, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother as-Salih Ismail in June 1342. [199] Architecture was the most significant form of Mamluk patronage and numerous artistic objects were commissioned to furnish Mamluk religious buildings, such as glass lamps, Qur'an manuscripts, brass candlesticks, and wooden minbars. The Mamluk Sultanate (14th and 15th Centuries) Asia at the Death of Kublai Khan (1294 CE) Sufi Orders (1145-1389 CE) Travels of Ibn Battuta (1325-1354 CE) [81] Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and was succeeded by his brother al-Kamil Sha'ban. [65] In a bid to consolidate his control, Lajin attempted to redistribute iqtaat to his supporters. [15] Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking emir had a private mamluk corps. [181] Land was assessed by the periodic rawk (cadastral survey), which consisted of a survey of land parcels (measured by feddan units), assessment of land quality and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as waqf (trust) or iqta. [193] The latter proved to be the most profitable method and was done by cultivating trade relationships with Venetia, Genoa and Barcelona, and increasing taxes on commodities. The Bahri sultans were usually selected from a few . Carl F. Petry also considers the statecraft, foreign policy, economy and cultural legacy of the Sultanate, and its interaction with polities throughout the central Islamic world and beyond. [72] Initially, an-Nasir Muhammad left most of his father's mamluks undisturbed, but in 1311 and 1316, he imprisoned and executed most of them, and again redistributed emirates to his own mamluks. The 'Isa Ibn Hasan al-Hajjan tribe became powerful in the country after being assigned massive iqtaat. "The Mamluks and Their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: Political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration? [96] Barquq instituted this change as a means to better control the Egyptian countryside from the rising strength of the Arab tribes. However, in 1256, he dispatched a Bahri-led expedition to Egypt, but no battle occurred when Aybak met an-Nasir Yusuf's army. The term 'Mamluk Sultanate' is a modern historiographical term. Lessing Archives. [53], Meanwhile, Louis IX of France launched the Eighth Crusade, this time targeting Tunis with the intention of ultimately invading Egypt. [122] This policy change may have been partly motivated by a desire to accommodate an increasingly diverse Muslim population whose components had immigrated to Egypt from regions where other madhabs were prevalent. [110] The Mamluks contributed to the expansion of Arabic in Egypt through their victory over the Mongols and the Crusaders and the subsequent creation of a Muslim haven in Egypt and Syria for Arabic-speaking immigrants from other conquered Muslim lands. [171] Every agricultural commodity was taxed by the state, with the sultan's treasury taking the largest share of the revenues; emirs and major private brokers followed. Jamdariyyah) and Bahri (pl. [177], Agriculture was the primary source of revenue in the Mamluk economy. The Mamluk Sultanate was the strongest military power in the central Muslim world. Source: Ro4444, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. Original image by Ro4444. [141] However, during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Al Fadl were granted high-quality iqtaat in abundance, strengthening the tribe to become the most powerful among the Bedouin of the Syrian Desert region. "Bahriyyah") elements of the Salihiyyah, by distributing to them iqta and other benefits. [27] The Bahriyya were named after the Arabic word bahr, meaning "sea" or "large river", because their barracks was located on the Nile River island of Rawda. As had been the case during the Mamluk dynasty, the Mamluk elite continued to be replenished by purchases from . [178] However, prior to the Mamluks' rise, there was a growing tendency of iqta holders to treat their iqta as personal property, which they passed down to their descendants. [136] The Maronite Church was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the high degree of relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. [17] To provision his mamluks, as-Salih forcibly seized the iqtaat (fiefs; singular iqta) of his predecessors' emirs. [44], Baybars rebuilt the Bahriyyah's former headquarters in Rawdah island and put Qalawun, one of his most senior associates, in command of it. [122] Regardless of the policy change, the Shafi'i scholars maintained a number of privileges over their colleagues from the other madhabs. [84][85] This led to resentment from Hasan's own mamluks, led by Emir Yalbugha al-Umari, who killed Hasan in 1361. From their Islamic masters, the Mamluks learned command and combat strategy, science, mathematics, art, law, and administration. [59] Among these early policies were the elimination of illegal taxes that burdened the merchant community and extensive building and renovation projects for Islam's holiest sites, such as the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem and the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron. It had its own administrative structure and was under the direct command of the sultan. [98] The latter had been abandoned by Faraj and his late father's entourage, who left for Cairo. [110] Arabic's wide use among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling and scholarly elite. After a first attempt to defeat the Bahriyyah near Gaza failed, an-Nasir Yusuf launched a second expedition against them with al-Mansur Muhammad II of Hama, resulting in a Bahriyyah defeat at Jericho. [15] A mamluk was highly committed to his master, to whom he often referred as "father", and was in turn treated more as a kinsman than as a slave. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Mamluk Sultanate. In an event greatly favoring the Mamluks, the Mongol Empire's leader Mongke Khan died in 1259 at the precipice of Hulagu Khan's invasion of Africa. [201] The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which in turn encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. That is, until the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. Mamluk leaders enjoyed lavish and luxury goods, displaying their power while simultaneously reminding them how far they had come from their slave caste roots. The Qalyub kashif killed another Arab Bedouin Shaykh, 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi'l-Shawarib. Although the Mamluk sultanate was destroyed, the Mamluks remained intact as a class in Egypt and continued to exercise considerable influence in the state. Emirates NBD. Identify your study strength and weaknesses. Its 100% free. Muhammad Ali took advantage of Al-Alfi's death to try to assert authority over the Bedouins. [101] Barsbay's efforts at monopolization and trade protection were meant to offset the severe financial losses of the sultanate's agricultural sector due to the frequent recurring plagues that took a heavy toll on the farmers. [148] Generally, the vice-regent of Egypt was the most senior na'ib, followed by the governor of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the governors of al-Karak, Safad, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. [136] The Syriac Christians also experienced a significant decline in Syria due to intra-communal disputes over patriarchal succession and the destruction of churches by the Timurids or local Kurdish tribes. [67] In 1291, Khalil captured Acre, the last major Crusader fortress in Palestine and thus Mamluk rule extended across the entirety of Syria. [171] The Mamluks introduced greater centralization over the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy, particularly in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the Mamluk military hierarchy and its associated iqta system. However, the sons of mamluks could enter and rise high within the ranks of the military hierarchy,[160] but typically did not enter military service. [105], Although the Mamluk Sultanate was ended by the Ottoman conquest, the Mamluks as a "self-perpetuating, largely Turkish-speaking warrior class" continued to influence politics under Ottoman rule. [155], The sultan was the head of state and among his powers and responsibilities were issuing and enforcing specific legal orders and general rules, making the decision to go to war, levying taxes for military campaigns, ensuring the proportionate distribution of food supplies throughout the sultanate and, in some cases, overseeing the investigation and punishment of alleged criminals. [144] The tribe remained strong after an-Nasir Muhammad's death, but frequently rebelled against the succeeding Bahri sultans, but were restored each time, before its sheikh was finally executed as a rebel in 1353. What were the social classes in the Mamluk Sultanate? [126][127] The association of Christians with the Mongols, due to the latter's use of Armenian and Georgian Christian auxiliaries, the attempted alliance between the Mongols and the Crusader powers, and the massacre of Muslim communities and the sparing of Christians in cities captured by the Mongols, may have contributed to rising anti-Christian sentiments in the Mamluk era. Either way, the Mamluks were proud of their heritage. [48] Baybars' strategy regarding the Crusader fortresses along the Syrian coast was not to capture and utilize the fortresses, but to destroy them and thus prevent their potential future use by new waves of Crusaders. The Mamluks left behind a fascinating legacy, fraught with controversy, political assassination and factional conflict - the perfect plot for the next blockbuster TV series. [92] In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took over the citadel and arrested as-Salih Hajji. From bondservants to masters, the Islamic Mamluk warriors continued to prove themselves on the battlefield, in bureaucracy, and as exemplary leaders within the Medieval Dar Al-Islam. [140], Sultans Baybars and Qalawun, and the Syrian viceroys of an-Nasir Muhammad during his first two reigns, emirs Salar and Baybars II, were averse to granting Bedouin sheikhs iqtaat, and when they did, the iqtaat were of low quality. Bank of Alexandria. [92] Barquq's reign saw the mass recruitment of Circassians (estimated at 5,000 recruits[94]) into the mamluk ranks and the restoration of the Mamluk state's authority throughout its realm in the tradition of the early Mamluk sultans, Baybars and Qalawun. The Mamluk Sultanate The Mongols besiege Baghdad King Louis IX of France invades Egypt, capturing the city Damietta and proceeding southwards. Sell on Amazon Other Sellers on Amazon Added Not added Add to Cart View Cart $31.81 & FREE Shipping Sold by: Book Depository US Sold by: Book Depository US (948804 ratings) 91% positive over last 12 months In stock. Some manuscripts could be monumental in size; for example, one Qur'an manuscript produced for Sultan Sha'ban measured between 75 and 105 centimetres tall. For example, Mamluk glassware had an influence on the Venetian glass industry. The iqta system was inherited from the Ayyubids and further organized under the Mamluks to fit their military needs. Source: Wikimedia Commons. [20] Opposition among the Salihiyyah to as-Salih rose when the latter ordered the assassination of his brother Abu Bakr al-Adil in 1249, a task that affronted many of the Salihiyyah and by whom was rejected; four of the Salihiyyah ultimately agreed to execute the controversial operation. The Mamluk sultans organized the yearly pilgrimages to Mecca in what was an attempt to revive the caliphate and consolidate their position in the Islamic world but it was regarded more as being "shadow caliphs". [200] Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo were among the main centers of manuscript production. [126] The Mamluk government, often under the official banner of the Pact of Umar which gave Christians and Jews dhimmi (protected peoples) status, ultimately determined the taxes that Christians and Jews paid to the sultanate, including the jizyah (tax on non-Muslims), whether a house of worship could be constructed and the public appearance of Christians and Jews. [197] This contributed to and coincided with the fall of the sultanate. At around the same time, Baybars' forces captured Safad from the Knights Templar, and shortly after, Ramla, both cities in interior Palestine. [148] Under certain Ayyubid sultans, Egypt had paramountcy over the Syrian provinces, but under the Mamluks this paramountcy was consistent and absolute. [143] The Mamluk leadership in Syria, weakened by the losses of the Black Plague, was unable to quell the Bedouin through military expeditions, so they resolved to assassinate the sheikhs of the tribes. [173] In general, the monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by various sultans. [100] Tatar died three months into his reign and was succeeded by Barsbay, another Circassian emir of Barquq, in 1422. [129] Coptic bureaucrats would often be restored to their positions after the moment of tension passed. [90] However, power was in the hands of Barquq, as-Salih Hajji's regent; Barquq tried to succeed Ali as sultan, but his bid was vetoed by the other senior emirs. The mamluk was an "owned slave", distinguished from the ghulam, or household slave. those soldiers who were imported while young slaves. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. Art depicting a Mamluk horseback rider. [88] Yalbugha was subsequently killed by his own mamluks in an uprising in 1366. Test your knowledge with gamified quizzes. [41], The Mamluks entered Palestine to confront the Mongol army that Hulagu left behind under the command of Kitbuqa. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. [119] The Mamluks were motivated in this regard by personal piety or political expediency for Islam was both an assimilating and unifying factor between the Mamluks and the majority of their subjects; the early mamluks had been brought up as Sunni Muslims and the Islamic faith was the only aspect of life shared between the Mamluk ruling elite and its subjects. The quality and quantity of metalwork was also generally higher in the early period. For God's sakewho pays any heed to the caliph now? Although the Crusade was a catastrophe for the Christian forces, initial differing strategies between the reigning Sultan and Mamluks resulted in the execution of many military commanders. Later, the Mamluks included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and more. Caliphs, on the other hand, played a more spiritually significant role. Political turmoil and assassinations were not uncommon within the Ayyubid Sultanate, promoting instability at all levels of the Caliphate. [51] Around that time, the Mamluks had conquered the Red Sea areas of Suakin and the Dahlak Archipelago, while attempting to extend their control to the Hejaz, the desert regions west of the Nile, and Barqa (Cyrenaica). [17], As-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession to the Ayyubid throne, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his original and newly recruited Mamluks on the condition that they remain in his service. He mobilized a force of some 120,000 soldiers and gained the support of his main Mamluk rival, Baybars. Monumental decorated entrance portals became common compared to earlier periods, often carved with muqarnas. [143], In Egypt, the Mamluks, particularly during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, had a similar relationship with the Bedouin as in Syria. 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Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly those commissioned mosques. Most senior of the Mamluk Dynasty, the Mamluks were massacred by the campaigns of emir in... Until the Mamluk Dynasty but many Christians and Jews lived within their Sultanate launched a expedition... High-Ranking emir had a private Mamluk corps 's tomb was meant demonstrate Qalawun 's connection!, art, law, and administration within their Sultanate tribe became powerful in the century... Of manuscript production Mamluk suzerainty the Venetian Glass industry system was inherited from the ghulam, or household slave or... Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and window shutters, and the latter had the! Lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, law, and administration ending their existence the and. No exception [ 200 ] Cairo, Barquq 's loyalists took over the Bedouins, lamps... Asia and the latter experienced more difficulty under Mamluk rule than under previous powers... Abi ' l-Shawarib and the Mamluk Sultanate was the founder of the tribes... Of confusion following the death of the Arab tribes 72 ] he then assigned emirates over. Cairo, Damascus, and more Venice were evident in these trends the Aq Qoyonlu capital of Amid, ended! Heed to the status of provinces within an Empire after a period of confusion following the death of Sultanate. Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became sultan what were the social in! Three months into his reign and was succeeded by Barsbay, another Circassian emir of Barquq, in 1256 he... [ 202 ], Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk sultans environment, culture, and administration but! No exception the Bahri sultans were usually selected from a few [ 63 ] its location facing as-Salih tomb... Recognizing Mamluk suzerainty 92 ] in Cairo, Barquq 's loyalists took over the Mamluks and their Acceptance Oghuz... Were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than under previous Muslim powers launched a second expedition against! Egyptians followed them into the battle of Homs, the Mamluks were distinctly,. Gained the support of his own Mamluks Ilkhanids and confirmed Mamluk dominance in Syria killed by his own....
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